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CALF rearing is often seen as a cheap and easy way into the beef industry. But only happy healthy calves achieve their target growth rates. Without a good start in life, all of the hard work during the rearing period (and later) can be wasted.

For smallholders looking to increase income, good calf rearing means more animals through the system in a year. Others finishing their own beef cattle - whether for market or the freezer - will see a better return in carcase weight and quality for their inputs.

Three key things to remember when starting out are: buy from a known source, select only healthy calves to start with - and remember that they are babies. Feeling sorry for the little runt at the back of the pen in the local market is a sure way to disaster, warns cattle vet Keith Cutler of the Endell Veterinary Group in Salisbury, Wiltshire.

"Only buy-in healthy calves of at least one week old which have been fed good colostrum and are from a known source," he says. "Calves should be bright-eyed, healthy and happy. Their navel should be dried up with no sign of infection and you want to see clear bright eyes with no nasal discharge. Don't buy animals that look pinched and drawn with sunken eyes, or faecal staining (indicating scours)."

Buying from market increases the chance of buying in disease, because calves from different farms of unknown disease history are mixed together, often without having had sufficient colostrum at birth. Keith explains that colostrum status is vital for immunity: antibodies get into the bloodstream and protect the calf against disease for the first two months of its life. Not enough colostrum, and their immune systems can't cope when challenged by viruses and bacteria. Being at market also causes stress (as does transport) and, with changes to their diet, they can very soon end up with scours or pneumonia (see box). Sick calves can end up poor doers or, in the worst cases, dead.

"As babies, they need to be kept clean and dry. Calves need good quality feed and, most importantly, consistency. This means their milk feed should be fed at the same temperature, concentration and time each day to avoid digestive upsets as this can lead to further problems."

Keith prefers systems which feed milk twice a day because it is closer to a calf's natural instinct to suckle six or eight times a day. It also gives a second opportunity to check calves and pick up problems early. All housing should be draught-proof (draughts cause chills and stress), but well ventilated. "This means the air should smell fresh and clean, not damp nor of ammonia. Fresh air removes dust, and the bacteria and viruses which cause pneumonia and it is important to keep the building dry and humidity down," adds Keith.

The most common problem seen in milk-fed calves is scouring - it's responsible for 80 per cent of pre-weaning losses (see box). Likely causes are rotavirus, coronavirus, cryptosporidium and salmonella. Slightly older calves could be suffering from coccidiosis. Without treatment, scouring leads to dehydration and eventually death. Animals become susceptible to secondary bacterial infections. "Also remember that salmonella and cryptosporidium are zoonotic: they affect humans too, so personal hygiene is an issue, particularly if children are helping."

In weaned calves, the major problem is pneumonia which is usually viral followed by a secondary bacterial infection. Although it can cause death, more often it leads to severe lung damage and the biggest cost to beef producers is a lower daily liveweight gain in their stock. Mixing different age groups of calves is a key factor, as older animals shed disease organisms, while younger calves are more vulnerable. "From a health point of view, it's better to operate an all in/all out policy, rather than top up numbers in dribs and drabs. Then think about your preventative medicine policy such as vaccinating for pneumonia, which you can do from two weeks of age."

Keith also recommends testing for BVD (see box) to find out whether a calf is persistently infected (PI) - more than 85 per cent of British cattle herds are now infected with BVD. A PI calf will be a constant source of infection to the rest, suppressing their immune systems and making them susceptible to all kinds of infections.

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